Origin of Subnormal Formation Pressures
The major mechanisms by which subnormal (less than hydrostatic) pressures occur may be summarised as follows:
(a) Thermal Expansion
As sediments and pore fluids are buried the temperature rises. If the fluid is allowed to expand the density will decrease, and the pressure will reduce.
(b) Formation Foreshortening
During a compression process there is some bending of strata (Figure 8). The upper beds can bend upwards, while the lower beds can bend downwards. The intermediate beds must expand to fill the void and so create a subnormally pressured zone. This is thought to apply to some subnormal zones in Indonesia and the US. Notice that this may also cause overpressures in the top and bottom beds.
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— |
Bed A |
————— ► |
A———— |
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P —► |
Bed B |
p—► |
B*" |
p |
|
—► |
Bed C |
————— ► |
. C^——— |
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. Overpressured. Subnormal Pressure . Overpressure |
Figure 8 Foreshortening of intermediate beds. shortening of bed B due to the warping of beds A and C causes unique pressure problems
(c) Depletion
When hydrocarbons or water are produced from a competent formation in which no subsidence occurs a subnormally pressured zone may result. This will be important when drilling development wells through a reservoir which has already been producing for some time. Some pressure gradients in Texas aquifers have been as low as 0.36 psi/ft.
(d) Precipitation
In arid areas (e. g. Middle East) the water table may be located hundreds of feet below surface, thereby reducing the hydrostatic pressures.
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Intake
Figure 9 The effect of the potentiometric surface in relationship to the ground surface causing overpressures and subnormal pressures |
(e) Potentiometric Surface
This mechanism refers to the structural relief of a formation and can result in both subnormal and overpressured zones. The potentiometric surface is defined by the height to which confined water will rise in wells drilled into the same aquifer. The potentiometric surface can therefore be thousands of feet above or below ground level (Figure 9).
(f) Epeirogenic Movements
A change in elevation can cause abnormal pressures in formations open to the surface laterally, but otherwise sealed. If the outcrop is raised this will cause overpressures, if lowered it will cause subnormal pressures (Figure 10).
Pressure changes are seldom caused by changes in elevation alone since associated erosion and deposition are also significant. Loss or gain of water saturated sediments is also important.
The level of underpressuring is usually so slight it is not of any practical concern. By far the largest number of abnormal pressures reported have been overpressures, and not subnormal pressures.